The first question may be around the ‘who’ that gender equality programmes refer to. There is not a common consensus for who is included in work around ‘gender equality’, as proven by a recent study into gender equality perceptions in international development. Part of this study included a survey of global practitioners, examining who was included by the term ‘gender’, and as shown by the table below, there is inconsistency across multiple identities inclusion, and even more so in the discrepancy between the intention to include someone, and the reality to do so.

Table 1 – Who is included by Gender: WASH Practitioners experiences of gender inclusion in International Development Programmes

To investigate how gender and related equality practises manifest, we turn to the world’s largest Sanitation Program, the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM).

Gender Equality and the Swachh Bharat Mission

The Swachh Bharat Mission’s main goal was to eliminate open defecation, and in 2019 it reportedly achieved it’s goal (this blog is will not explore the validity of the claim, but please know there is much discrepancy between the official government line and practitioner stances). The eight associated documents of SBM[1] (core guidelines and additional documentation) clearly stated the need for gender inclusion. The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation specifically included 3-page advisory on mainstreaming gender into SBM in the 2017 policy update, particularly noting the need for transgender representation and inclusion.

During 2023 and 2024, 28 key informant interviews (KIIs) and 7 focus groups (FGDs) with 70 combined participants, were asked about gender equality and how it related to SBM’s implementation. The result, a discrepancy between the intention of the documentation to develop holistic gender inclusion that included cisgender and transgender representation, and the reality of oversimplification and homogenisation of gender.

“Unfortunately there's just a slither of people who believe that gender is more than two normative genders” (KII 1: NGO practitioner, Delhi)

“I think gender in India, if we talk about gender, people mean women.” (Practitioner FGD 1: NGO Practitioner, Tamil Nadu)

Queerness in Indian Sanitation

In 2014 Transgender fundamental rights were technically affirmed under India’s constitution, in 2017 the gender guidelines for SBM included reference to inclusion of queer communities, and in 2019 the Transgender Persons Protection of Rights Bill theoretically created protections for minority gender identities. However, these landmarks do not negate the queer discrimination present across India today.

“They [queer community] don’t have a voice, either by choice or by design, or by systemic failure” (KII 2: NGO practitioner, Delhi)

In our work, queer activists repeatedly discussed feeling abandoned by government, and government officials stated blindness to the inequalities facing the queer community, in particular transgender persons.

“As far as the Queer community is concerned, we can say that we come from a section where we are considered minorities amongst minorities. So, our count is considered even after the minorities, and so I guess our basic needs is such” (Community FGD 1: Gay Man, Rajasthan)

“I have not heard in my life that Transgender is discriminated at all” (KII 3: Government Official, Delhi)

The result? Sanitation facilities that don’t meet the needs of the individuals that want to use them. Queerness is overlooked, pushed aside, or ignored by government, and therefore facilities that are built aren’t appropriate or accessible to those trying to use them.

Prioritising Accountability Mechanisms

Gender Equality guidance and policy will not work to combat inequality until it has associated accountability mechanisms. In this work we saw national level policy referring to inclusion of transgender communities and notes on ensuring that work did not reinforce harmful gender stereotypes. Yet, there was no specific funding for implementing the gender guidance, nor was there a ministry which took accountability for it’s implementation. We recount a specific memory of bouncing between the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Women and Children and Social Justice and empowerment, having each explain how gender equality in sanitation was someone else’s responsibility.

“’If you read through the guidelines, it will be politically more than 100 per cent correct. But when it comes to action or when it comes to translating that policy into action, at national level to provincial level to district level to subdistrict level, to panchayat… quite often in India we miss the implementation framework” (KII 4: NGO Practitioner, Delhi)

Connecting Engineering and Society

The availability of a physical facility does not ensure access without the attention to social dynamics. During this work, government officials repeatedly stated social dynamics were not a driving factor of service accessibility, yet communities interviewed shared drastically different experiences.

“But there is an issue of, you know, the issue of non availability of services due to social issues. It may exist, but it's very, very microscopic or minority. It's really a minor issue” (KII 5: Government Official, Telangana)

“There is always discrimination out there. If we use the ladies’ toilet, the women there look as to why we are there; and if I go to men’s toilet, there also people react in a strange way that why we are there…” (FGD 2: Transgender Woman, Rajasthan)

This blog therefore calls attention for the need to continually assess how social dynamics affect infrastructure development, in particular, including voices that are frequently sidelined and excluded.

“When it comes to implementation, I think the scope of discussion has to widen. It has to go beyond looking at just how many pans are being installed” (KII 6: Academic, Karnataka)

When pursuing gender equality outcomes within sanitation programs, it’s crucial to look beyond infrastructure and examine the social and systemic barriers that limit access, particularly for marginalised communities such as transgender and queer individuals. While policies like India’s Swachh Bharat Mission offer promising frameworks for inclusion, the reality of their implementation often falls short, reinforcing stereotypes and neglecting the needs of minority gender identities. Achieving true equity requires accountability, cross-sector collaboration, and a conscious effort to engage all voices.

The research in this blog is taken from Dr Robinson’s PhD Thesis, ‘Beyond binaries: Towards a gender inclusive sanitation future’, and was co-written by Dr Robinson and Mr Bokam (the in-country research advisor on the project).

[1] Original Guidelines for SBM-G (2014) | Revised Guidelines for SBM-G (2017) | Revised Guidelines for SBM-G (Modified 2018) | Original Guidelines for SBM-U (2014) | Revised Guidelines for SBM-U (2017) | IEC Guidelines for States and Districts (2017) | Menstrual Hygiene Management: National Guidelines (2015) | Swachh Bharat: Swachh Vidyalaya (2014)